Transit Manager's Toolkit

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Planning and Evaluation

Introduction

An important step in the strategic planning process is to fully understand the community’s needs. To do this, an agency must become part of the community rather than just serving it. John Martin, in the National RTAP technical brief “Make Business Part of Rural Transit’s Business: How to Form Strategic Business Partnerships,” explains that it is imperative for transit agencies to reach out to an often-overlooked stakeholder group: the business community, which includes individual companies and business organizations such as the local Chamber of Commerce. Given that public transit connects local businesses to workers and customers, establishing a partnership between transit agencies and businesses can benefit all parties involved.   

To read more about public transit and the business community, see the National RTAP technical brief Make Business Part of Rural Transit’s Business: How to Form Strategic Business Partnerships by John Martin and his recorded webinar (11/19/10) on the topic.



Additional important stakeholders for rural transit agencies are human service agency representatives, whose clients depend upon the services provided by rural public transportation programs. These agencies may serve older adults, people with disabilities, and/or people without access to personal transportation. Often these agencies have contractual relationships with rural public transit agencies to help their clients access services.

Community stakeholders are often called upon to serve on transportation advisory committees (TACs) or advisory boards, which are formally appointed groups that typically advise local elected officials on transportation needs within the community. TACs are different from governing boards, as they are for advisory only.  Committee members speak on behalf of their stakeholder groups to give feedback as to whether the transit system is providing appropriate service for the community. There is generally an application/appointment process, and each member has a defined term of service. TACs generally meet quarterly, though some may meet more frequently if specific initiatives are under development. Some state DOTs require that their subrecipient transit agencies have TACs in place.

The composition of the TAC should reflect the community with regard to race, sex, ethnicity, age, and disability. TAC meetings should be conducted in an open and transparent manner and be held at locations that are easily accessible by community members and at times that community members can attend. 

Detailed guidance regarding the establishment and maintenance of TACs can be found in  Effective Transportation Advisory Committees: Creating a Group that Reflects all Community Voices, a resource developed in 2012 by Easter Seals Project ACTION (ESPA).

More information on advisory boards can be found in the Mission and Leadership section of the Toolkit.

Strategic planning activities serve to provide transit agencies with a road map to guide them as their communities change over time. This road map provides the structure for service planning activities, which are described in the next section.

The first step in service planning is taking inventory of available resources and the transit needs of the community. Once the agency knows what funding, vehicles, facilities, equipment, and staff are available, and the services that are currently provided, the transit manager or planner can match those resources and services with the transportation needs of the community. If the organization has conducted a strategic planning process, it will have a clear mission statement and list of system priorities. The services provided should match those values and fulfill the mission of the organization. In addition, many State DOTs have statewide planning priorities, guidelines for the types of activities they will fund, and performance measures that they use to determine a service or project’s effectiveness. Choosing services and projects that both fill transit needs in the community and align with the statewide planning priorities/guidelines will ensure that the transit agency is providing necessary services that will be supported by the state. 

In addition to stakeholder involvement, which was discussed above within the context of strategic planning, obtaining public input is also an important step in the planning process. Public input provides concrete direction regarding what transit services are needed and will likely be used. Transit agencies use a variety of methods to obtain public input, including passenger surveys, community surveys, focus groups, and public meetings.

An effective way to find out what the public desires is to simply ask them! There are various ways to ask riders what they want, including on board paper or electronic surveys, online surveys, and telephone surveys. Before conducting a survey, establish what specific information is desired from passengers as this will determine the questions asked. Passenger surveys can be used to gather information for many planning purposes, including collecting data for a specific service initiative (i.e., should the agency add service on Saturdays?), understanding rider trip characteristics, and determining rider satisfaction. The following are examples of questions that can be asked in a passenger survey:

• What is the purpose of the passenger’s trip?
• What is the passenger’s origin and destination, and how many transfers will they have to make to complete the trip?
• How did the passenger pay their fare?
• How often does the passenger use public transit?
• How did the passenger get to the bus stop? How will the passenger get to their final destination after getting off the bus?
• How long did the passenger wait for the bus?
• Why did the passenger choose to take public transit and how would they have completed the trip otherwise?
• What time of the day does the passenger usually ride the bus?
• What is the passenger’s income? 
• Do they own an automobile?
• How would the passenger like to receive information from the transit system?
• What service changes would be the most helpful?

Responses to questions like these can help a transit system determine common paths of travel, the number of internal and external transfers, whether fare cards or passes are being utilized or are needed, on-time performance, number of choice riders, needs for route changes or extensions, and how to best conduct outreach to customers. A transit system can also ask survey respondents to rate their satisfaction with the agency’s services.

Passengers can be given surveys onboard the bus using a paper system that allows the rider to fill out a hard copy form. The passenger can leave the survey on the bus or mail it back to the transit system. Alternatively, postcards with QR codes (quick response code, a two-dimensional bar code that can be scanned by a smart phone) that link to an electronic passenger survey can be printed and distributed to eliminate the need to distribute, collect, and enter the data from paper surveys. 

Passengers can also complete an interview survey, with an interviewer asking the questions and recording the answers on a mobile device. Having the interviewer use this technology allows for location data to be tracked, as well as the opportunity to create an audio recording of the passengers’ answers. A spoken survey also facilitates participation by passengers with low literacy. 

Regardless of the medium used, limit the survey to the necessary questions to ensure passengers return completed surveys in a timely manner. Asking too many questions can cause passengers to return an incomplete survey or not return the survey at all. 

The Transit Performance Monitoring System (TPMS) Results report, by McCollom Management Consulting for the American Public Transportation Association (APTA), found that it was more effective to survey passengers on-board than over the telephone and that well-trained surveyors generally yielded a good survey response rate, regardless of the survey method chosen.

To read more about how a transit system used mobile devices to conduct an on-board survey, see the project results presentation, Transit, Technology and Public Participation, by Jeremy Mattson and Del Peterson at the Small Urban and Rural Transit Center. 

For more information about conducting on-board survey using paper forms, see the Transit Performance Monitoring System (TPMS) Results report.

The increased availability of electronic survey media options over the past several years has made it relatively easy and inexpensive to conduct community surveys. These types of surveys are used to obtain information from community members who may not use the public transit system on a regular basis or to help determine the feasibility of starting a new service. Community surveys are helpful in gauging support and awareness of the transit program, as well learning what types of transit services would be needed to attract new riders to the service.

Focus groups and public meetings are useful public outreach tools to use when specific service proposals are in the review stage. Presenting service proposals to the public in an interactive setting allows people to better understand the proposals, which can result in insightful comments and suggestions from potential riders. During the COVID-19 pandemic, many of these meetings were held virtually, which enabled greater public participation; however, those without electronic access were not able to participate. Moving forward, a hybrid approach is likely the most effective way to ensure access and maximize participation.   

Public meetings are required in certain circumstances, including as part of some of the requirements of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (see below).

Not only is public involvement a good business practice, but it is also a requirement if a transit agency receives federal funds. As stated in the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Title VI circular (FTA C 4702.1B, Title VI Requirements and Guidelines for Federal Transit Administration Recipients), all recipients of federal funding are required to comply with the public participation requirements of 49 U.S.C. Sections 5307(b) (requires programs of projects to be developed with public participation) which reads:

5307 (b)

Program of Projects. Each recipient of a grant shall—

(1) make available to the public information on amounts available to the recipient under this section;

(2) develop, in consultation with interested parties, including private transportation providers, a proposed program of projects for activities to be financed;

(3) publish a proposed program of projects in a way that affected individuals, private transportation providers, and local elected officials have the opportunity to examine the proposed program and submit comments on the proposed program and the performance of the recipient;

(4) provide an opportunity for a public hearing in which to obtain the views of individuals on the proposed program of projects;

(5) ensure that the proposed program of projects provides for the coordination of public transportation services assisted under section 5336 of this title with transportation services assisted from other United States Government sources;

(6) consider comments and views received, especially those of private transportation providers, in preparing the final program of projects; and

(7) make the final program of projects available to the public.

As part of the Section 5311 subrecipient grant application process, State DOTs typically require a public participation process that addresses the above requirements, including consultation with private operators and a public hearing (or opportunity for one upon request) about the proposed grant application.

Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color or national origin. Subrecipients of FTA funding are required to prepare and submit a Title VI program that includes a public participation plan, as summarized in the Civil Rights section of the Toolkit and detailed in the FTA Circular. According to the Title VI Circular, public participation plans must include “an outreach plan to engage minority and limited English proficiency populations, as well as a summary of outreach efforts made.” This plan does not have to be limited to minority populations alone and it can include outreach to other traditionally underserved groups such as low-income populations, people with disabilities, and others. When developing a public participation plan, an agency has the ability to develop policies appropriate to current projects and the community, but public involvement is always required when developing new programs or projects.

The Title VI circular also states that grant recipients are required to comply with the public participation requirements of 49 U.S.C. Section 5307(c)(1)(I) (requires a locally developed process to consider public comment before raising a fare or carrying out a major reduction in transportation service), and some states extend this requirement to their Section 5311 subrecipients.

There are additional Title VI considerations for service planning. Services must be provided in a non-discriminatory manner, with services equitably provided to minority populations. All FTA funded transit systems that operate fixed route services must establish system-wide service standards and policies. 

For more information about Title VI requirements, see the Civil Rights section of the Toolkit and the Title VI Circular.

An important element of public involvement is public notification. National RTAP’s 2024 What Transit Agencies Need to Inform the Public About Before Making Changes technical brief provides a checklist of activities that trigger the need for public notification.

Several State DOTs require local transit agencies to develop multi-year plans, both as a function of their role in oversight of these agencies and to help plan their own multi-year budgets. Federal rural public transportation funds are administered through the states, which means that State DOTs must weigh the needs of all their local transit grantees in the annual budget process. Having multi-year plans in place for local transit programs gives DOTs an idea of the level of investment that is likely to be needed for each of their grantees for several budget years. These plans are typically called transit development plans (TDPs) or short-range transit plans.

A Transit Development Plan (TDP) is a short-range plan that reviews and updates a transit agency's goals, evaluates the existing conditions and needs, and identifies ways to meet near-term and long-term needs and goals. A TDP will typically include recommendations regarding the:

• Services the agency intends to operate
• Capital that will be required
• Multi-year budget estimates

The planning horizon for a TDP is typically between five and ten years.

State DOTs often will fund the development of these plans. For example, in the Commonwealth of Virginia, TDPs are required for local grantees and the Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (DRPT) has a standard outline for the structure of the plans. DRPT hires professional planning firms to conduct the technical work for these studies, which are guided by the local transit agencies. The Maryland Department of Transportation also conducts local transit planning efforts in a similar manner, as do many other State DOTs. Other State DOT guidance on TDPs include examples from Florida, Oregon, and Washington State.



In addition to state-specific planning requirements, FTA has planning requirements associated with its Section 5310 grant program. Federal transit law requires that projects selected for funding under the Enhanced Mobility for Individuals and Individuals with Disabilities (Section 5310) Program be included in a locally developed, coordinated public transit-human services transportation plan, and that the plan be developed and approved through a process that included participation by seniors, individuals with disabilities, representatives of public, private, and nonprofit transportation and human services providers and other members of the public utilizing transportation services. These coordinated plans identify the transportation needs of individuals with disabilities, older adults, and people with low incomes, provide strategies for meeting these needs, and prioritize transportation services for funding and implementation.

Details about what must be included in this plan can be found in the Section 5310 circular.

Many State DOTs have assisted counties and local regions to develop and update these coordinated plans. Examples of guidance for developing these plans can be found on many state websites, such as Alaska, Ohio, Texas, Washington, and Wisconsin.

National RTAP offers a guidance in a technical brief titled Writing a Coordinated Public Transit Human Services Transportation Plan. Technical assistance in developing these plans can also be found through the National Center for Mobility Management.  Resources of transportation coordination can be found through the Transportation Technical Assistance Coordination Library (TACL) as well as FTA’s Coordinating Council on Access and Mobility and Transportation Coordination web pages.  For more information, see the Coordination and Mobility Management section of the toolkit.

Since the beginning of rural public transit, transit managers have been seeking new ways of providing service to their customers. Rural transit systems may serve customers that live on the outskirts of a metropolitan urban area. They may transport residents to and from small towns and low-density counties, as well as extremely isolated areas. Rural transit can include rural towns that are ten miles apart, 50 miles apart, or communities on the fringes of urbanized areas, or that are hours away. Along with this array of service areas comes an assortment of customer transportation needs - commutes to work in the city, access to key destinations such as local and specialty health care, shopping, school, connections to intercity bus, and other transportation services. 

With a variety of service areas, customer demands, and operational burdens, choosing the right service design for each transportation need is not an easy task. What might be an effective and innovative approach in one area may not work in another.

Decisions about what types of services are provided by the transit agency will be based on the information gathered during the planning stage that includes an inventory of resources and public outreach. This section of the Toolkit will describe each of the basic service types—fixed route, flexible route, and demand response service—and will provide guidance about when each service type should be used. This section will also provide guidance about productivity and cost factors. There are different Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements associated with each type of service, and for more information about that topic see the ADA section of this toolkit as well as the ADA Toolkit.

It is essential that transit managers understand the importance of productivity in determining the most appropriate service design for each particular part of their service area.  A measure of productivity is one-way trips per vehicle hour or mile.  For rural transit, one-way trips per vehicle hour is commonly used to measure productivity.  This measure is applicable to all rural transit service options: fixed route and paratransit (demand response). Productivity improvements are also a practical way to lower costs.

The following example demonstrates how productivity impacts costs. 

It costs a transit system $50 per hour to provide service.

• 1.5 one-way trips per hour will yield a cost of $33.33 per trip
• 3 one-way trips per hour brings the cost to $16.67 per trip
• 10 one-way trips per hour brings the cost down to $5 per trip
• 25 one-way trips per hour per hour brings the cost to $2 per trip

Where possible, always seek the highest productivity service that can safely and appropriately meet customer needs. See TCRP Report 136, Guidebook for Rural Demand Response Transportation: Measuring, Assessing and Improving Performance for additional information on this subject.

Service models for rural transit are briefly described below and in more detail in the sections that follow:

• Fixed route service with ADA complementary paratransit refers to a system of transporting individuals (other than by aircraft), including the provision of designated public transportation service by public entities and the provision of transportation service by private entities, including, but not limited to, specified public transportation service, on which a vehicle is operated along a prescribed route according to a fixed schedule. ADA complementary paratransit is comparable transit service required by the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) for people with disabilities who are unable to use fixed route transportation systems. (49 CFR 37.3) 

• Flexible route service (Route deviation) refers to a blend of fixed-route and paratransit services that includes public fixed routes with published schedules that can flex off route up to a prescribed distance to pick up passengers that may not be able to get to a bus stop.

• Fixed schedule service is a hybrid service that provides door-to-door service according to a schedule. This service is typically used in more remote parts of a service area.

• Demand-response service refers to any system of transporting individuals, including the provision of designated public transportation service by public entities and the provision of transportation service by private entities, including, but not limited to, specified public transportation service, which is not a fixed route system. (49 CFR 37.3) An advance request for service is a key characteristic of demand-responsive service provided by public entities, nonprofits, and private providers. 



• On-demand (Microtransit) service refers to technology-enabled service that uses multi-passenger vehicles to provide on-demand services with dynamically generated routing. Microtransit services are traditionally provided in designated service areas. Service models for rural areas include small rural cities of under 25,000 population, and first mile/last mile connections to fixed route services (typically in urban/suburban areas). (FTA Shared Mobility Definitions)
  

According to National RTAP’s Dispatching and Scheduling for Rural Transit Systems training module, fixed route services are “services provided on a repetitive, fixed schedule basis along a specific route with vehicles stopping to pick up and deliver passengers to specific locations. Each fixed route service trip serves the same origins and destinations.” 

This type of service is typically provided by urban systems and funded through the FTA Section 5307 Urbanized Area Formula Program, although rural systems may also provide fixed route service. Many smaller cities, sometimes with populations as low as 10,000, employ fixed route, as well. A general rule of thumb is that fixed route services can be effective in areas with population densities of over 1,500  people per square mile and typically in cities of over 25,000 population.



The following guidance is largely taken from the Rural and Tribal Transit Service Designs for the 2020s Workshop, National RTAP Conference, December 2023.

Fixed Route Guidelines for Rural Cities

1. Maximize Use of Fixed-Route – It has the capability of moving the most people at the lowest cost but is not appropriate for all service areas or all people.  The integration of people with disabilities into the mainstream of American life is a fundamental purpose of the ADA (ADA Basic Principles); however, complementary paratransit or demand-response service may be needed.
2. Minimum Density – Fixed-route service works best in communities of at least 1,000 to 1,500 persons per square mile. Similarly populated areas with major destinations or tourism will also support fixed route service.
3. Service Days and Hours - If possible, provide service from 6:30 AM to 6:30 PM, Monday through Friday and weekend service.
4. When is Service Provided? - When the service is provided is as important as where (origin and destination). Serving commuters, shoppers, students and others may require service early and late in the day and on weekends. A service that only operates for four hours per day won’t work for most riders; especially those who need to go to school or work.
5. Out and Back - Out and back (bi-directional) is the typical service design of fixed-route transit. If there is a bus stop on one side of the street, there should usually be a stop across the street.   
6. Timed Transfer and Interlining - Fixed routes should meet at a designated transfer point and then become a second route (fixed route interlining).  This reduces the need for transfers.  Fixed route services should also be timed to meet other buses.
7. Transfer Location - Transfer locations should be at major trip generators such as large stores, downtown, or at a shopping mall with proper access. Well-placed transfer locations will reduce the number of transfers and decrease travel time.
8. Route Design - Keep route designs simple. Some routes should be origin based and some should be destination based.   
9. Meandering Loops – Use out and back (bi-directional) routes whenever possible and keep meandering loops to a minimum. 
10. Timing Points - Where stops are less than three to four minutes apart, timing points should be every seven to eight minutes.  Buses should never run early (or late). 
11. Headways - The time between buses going in the same direction on the same route.  Going from one hour headways to ½ hour headways is excellent customer service, but it doubles the cost.
12. Dependability - Fixed route service must operate on schedule every day. 
13. Proper Streets and Turns - A bus must be able to easily traverse a narrow street. Routing should avoid unprotected left turns on busy streets as well as any other difficult maneuvers.  Never put the driver and the bus in a position where the vehicle must back up as a part of the route. 
14. Marketing - Rural transit services need to be professionally marketed and promoted. 
15. Accessible Bus Stops and Pathways - Care must be taken in selecting bus stops for safety and accessibility.
    

Some rural transit systems allow riders to request “flag stops” instead of, or in addition to, fixed stops (where the law allows). This is particularly valuable for long distance rural routes. An example of a flag stop policy is to allow drivers to have discretion to stop the bus to pick up or drop off passengers at any location requested by a passenger. Flag stops are commonly used in rural areas where it may not be practical to install bus stops at all locations where riders may need to board. The practice saves riders long walks to fixed stops by allowing stop flexibility. In small cities, it may be possible to work with the local government to install poles and/or bus stop signs through in-kind match.

There are some criticisms of flag stops, including safety issues, the potential for inconsistencies among drivers, and ADA concerns. Persons with visual disabilities or persons that can’t use their arms may not be able to flag down a bus. The ADA concerns are outlined in the Fixed Route Bus Requirements section of the ADA Toolkit.

For safety and consistency, it is important that agencies develop specific policies for drivers and passengers to use in determining when and where it is safe for the transit vehicle to stop for passenger pick-ups and drop-offs. Training for drivers with regard to flag stop policies is also important. 

Examples of flag stop policies include:

• Instructing drivers to stop safely for anyone on a corner who may have a disability. 
• As requested by a rider, allowing drivers the discretion to stop the bus to pick up or drop off passengers at any location that is safe to pull over.
  

A flexible (flex) route is also called “route deviation or point deviation” service. For flex route service, the bus may flex from the scheduled route to stop at locations within a defined distance (for example, ¾ mile) of the route. When this is done, the bus must return to the route where it flexed to continue service. Flexible routes are appropriate for long distance routes but less so in small and larger cities, though very small communities with small service areas may also find this works well. Girdwood, Alaska is one such system where both the population and service area lend themselves well to Flex Route service. .

The best use for this service, however, is for long distance, rural routes where it isn’t feasible to operate two vehicles when a person requests a flex ride.  One vehicle can typically handle both (as needed). For example, the North Central Regional Transportation District (NCRTD) in Northern New Mexico uses flexible service to serve persons with disabilities for all of its long distance routes (often 70 miles or more).

Fixed schedule service is a hybrid service that is a cross between fixed route and demand response service. This service model is most appropriate in remote, rural areas where all-day service, five days per week, is not appropriate.  Fixed schedule service is a method of providing limited transit access over a large area that could not otherwise support service. This service picks people up at their door and delivers them to their destination; but it is according to a schedule. 

For example, a county could be divided into four service zones, each getting service on designated day(s) and time(s), based on needs.  Fixed schedule service is ideal for riders who use the community transportation service on occasion for appointments or shopping, but this type of service is not usually able to accommodate employment trips, which require a higher level of service. 

Fixed schedule service:

• Works best in larger/remote rural areas when there are not enough resources to cover all parts of the service area at all times.
• Serves different areas according to a schedule that is clearly posted and well marketed.
• Schedules are often driven by dialysis needs.
• Can be one or more days per week and one or more round trips per day.
• Experience indicates that passengers accept this approach, and doctors and hospitals will cooperate.
• Productivity is 6-12 one-way trips per hour.

Checkpoint or point deviation is another type of hybrid service in which vehicles serve designated stops at scheduled times but operate in demand-responsive mode between stops. Spontaneous travelers can use the service by simply boarding and disembarking from buses at the designated checkpoint stops, without advance reservation. Riders unable, or unwilling, to travel to the checkpoints may access a demand-responsive service with advance reservation. There is no designated route between checkpoints. 

Fares may be lower for checkpoint boarding to encourage use of the lower-cost service. There is sufficient time built into the schedule to allow for the deviations between checkpoint stops. The overall running times between checkpoints are therefore longer than they would be on a fixed route.

The checkpoint stops are usually made within a 10-minute window (not early, but up to 10 minutes late). If there are no deviations between checkpoints, vehicles may arrive early at a checkpoint, but will not leave until the scheduled time. Checkpoint service typically provides access to riders within one-quarter mile of the checkpoints, as well as within the deviation service area. As with a pure demand-responsive system, the route deviation area would need to be defined. 



Checkpoint service offers the spontaneity and freedom of travel for riders who do not wish to call ahead, while also accommodating riders who need a more specialized pick-up location.

Zone service is a method of providing limited transit access over a large area that could not otherwise support service. Zone service can assign fixed-route, demand-response or other type of service to certain zones or sectors on certain days. For example, a community might have five zones, each of which is provided transit service one day of each week. Communities with a more densely populated core could provide daily service in the core area and zone service in outlying areas. Depending upon demand, zones may have service several days a week or as infrequently as once a month. Potential users in the zones plan their trips around the schedule, concentrating their trips on the days that service is offered. 



Zone service is ideal for riders who use the community transportation service on occasion for appointments or shopping, but this type of service is not usually able to accommodate employment trips, which require a higher level of service.

TCRP Report 6, Users’ Manual for Assessing Service-Delivery Systems for Rural Passenger Transportation, states that route deviation services work well when the following is true: 

(Route deviation systems and services are also known as flexible route systems.)

• The deviations are a relatively small part of the overall demand and the overall running time of the route
• Most of the riders are not time-sensitive
• Door-to-door service is important to some, but not all, passengers
• There are other positive reasons for providing services that are more like fixed route than demand response services

TCRP Report 6 also states that route deviated service does not work well if the following is true:

• Most of the trips are time sensitive
• Some sort of route structure is not desirable for the community

When designing flexible services, such as route and point deviation services, transit agencies must ensure that ADA requirements are met.

Chapter 3 of TCRP Report 6 Users’ Manual for Assessing Service Delivery Systems for Rural Passenger Transportation goes into detail about how to choose the appropriate service type. 

To read more about when flexible routes and point deviated services are appropriate, see TCRP Report 140, A Guide for Planning and Operating Flexible Public Transportation Services and TCRP Synthesis 53, Operational Experiences with Flexible Transit Services. 

More information about fixed route services can be found in Best Practices in Transit Service Planning, a resource by the Center for Urban Transportation Research (CUTR) at the University of South Florida (USF).

According to National RTAP’s Dispatching and Scheduling training module, demand response service is “characterized by the fact that vehicles that do not operate over a fixed route or on a fixed schedule.” Because they do not operate on a fixed route or schedule, passengers must request a trip by contacting the transit agency. This training module also divides demand response services into these four categories: 

• Many origins - Many destinations 
• Many origins - One destination
• One origin - Many destinations 
• One origin - One destination

There are a variety of ways in which transit systems provide these services: reservation service, subscription service, ADA complementary paratransit service, taxicab service, vanpool service, carpool service, volunteer drivers, and transportation network companies (TNCs, such as Lyft or Uber). 

Types of demand response service include:

Day-in-advance service (requires the customer to make a reservation 24 to 48 hours in advance) is the most appropriate service when overall demand levels are low and trip origins are dispersed in a very rural area.

Microtransit is most appropriate in small cities up to 25,000 population. 

Subscription service works well in any demand response service model.

For more information about the delivery methods above, see the National RTAP Dispatching and Scheduling training module and the Rural and Tribal Transit Service Designs for the 2020s Workshop, National RTAP Conference, December 2023..

For more information on ADA complementary paratransit service, see the ADA section of the Toolkit.

TCRP Report 6 breaks demand response services into three different categories: subscription services (a rider requests a repetitive ride), advanced reservation (a rider requests a particular ride ahead of time) and real time scheduling (a rider calls to request the service just before the ride is needed). The report also outlines which of these scheduling categories is most effective for specific situations, as described below.

Subscription service works well in the following situations:

• Travelers are relatively clustered around the same origins and destinations
• The demand for trips is once or twice a day (not all day long)
• The same persons take the same trips (that is, the same origins and destinations at the same times) on a frequent, regular basis, but the level of demand is not high enough to justify fixed route or fixed schedule service
• Travel demand densities are relatively low

Advanced reservation service is the most appropriate in the following situations: 

• The trips are not taken on a regular pattern (such as those on subscription services)
• Ride sharing is used to reduce the cost per trip for each passenger
• Overall demand levels are low and trip origins are dispersed

Real-time scheduling is best suited for situations in which:

• Highly personalized services are appropriate
• Service needs are immediate
• Door-to-door services are desired
• Origins and destinations are variable and do not necessarily fit any preestablished patterns
• Demand densities are not very low and trip distances are not very long

Real-time scheduling is sometimes used in conjunction with advance reservation demand response service, such as when a system uses “will-calls,” meaning that once the rider has been dropped off at their destination, they “will-call” when they are ready to be picked-up for their ride home.

TCRP Report 6, Users’ Manual for Assessing Service Delivery Systems for Rural Passenger Transportation, Chapter 3, explains how to choose the appropriate service type and the advantages and disadvantages of each service type.

TCRP Report 136, Guidebook for Rural Demand Response Transportation: Measuring, Assessing and Improving Performance, lists factors that influence rural demand response performance over which a transit manager has direct influence. These are: 

• Vehicle operators
• Operating staff- scheduler, dispatch, and operations supervisor
• Scheduling/dispatch
• Certain operating policies
• Vehicles
• Administrative expenses
• Safety

To view the details of this list, see TCRP Report 136.

The Shared-Use Mobility Center (SUMC) defines microtransit as a technological evolution of dial-a-ride and paratransit and refers to services with on-demand availability that use vehicles larger than personal autos but smaller than transit buses—generally vans or cutaways carrying up to 20 passengers. SUMC notes that microtransit services require professional drivers who are usually employed through a purchased-transportation arrangement with a vendor or employed directly by a transit agency.

An increasing number of rural public transit providers have recently begun operating transit service with an on-demand, e-hailing component. These services, called microtransit and mobility on demand, use smaller vehicles and mobile technology to provide dynamic routing and curb-to-curb or corner-to-corner service. Customers generally use a smart phone application (app) to schedule and pay for a ride within a specific geo-fenced zone. These services will have a back-up phone number to access a dispatcher for riders who do not have smart phones, as well as a farebox. Microtransit service can provide flexibility to customers in rural areas. Dynamic routing capabilities allow drivers to quickly adjust pick-up locations to provide more efficient service. 

Rural microtransit typically uses app-based, real-time scheduling technology, to manage trip requests and provide constantly updated real-time arrival information. The service typology is like the commonly known services provided by Uber, Lyft, and other transportation network companies, except it is a shared ride service. By adopting this technology, rural public transportation providers can operate more efficiently and customer focused service in small cities. Microtransit service provides more flexibility to customers than traditional fixed route service. Riders can individualize service by selecting both their pick-up and drop-off locations, while dynamic routing capabilities allow drivers to quickly adjust pick-up locations to provide more efficient service. Many transit operators see microtransit as a viable alternative to lower performing fixed routes or as a way to provide true demand-response service.

The cost to provide microtransit services includes the typical transit operating costs such as labor and fuel and also includes the cost of the specialized software platform that is used for the smart phone app.

FTA has funded several Integrated Mobility Innovation (IMI) grants to encourage the advancement of these types of technologies for the transit industry. Information concerning IMI grants, including descriptions of previously funded projects can be found on the FTA IMI web page. 

Key characteristics of rural microtransit service include: 

• On-demand and real-time service – customers book trips when they are ready to go
• Dynamic routing and scheduling – routes may vary 
• Shared ride – where possible trips are grouped together
• Operation within a geofenced zone – shorter trips within the defined area 
• App-based – leverages customers’ smartphones for more direct and efficient service (with a back-up phone number to access a dispatcher for riders who do not have smart phones)

The operating cost of microtransit service in an area already served by paratransit is similar for the same number of service hours.  In many cases, existing vehicles can be used.

Rural microtransit is best suited for short-range trips (one to seven miles) within cities of at least 3,000 to 5,000 population with significant destinations such as shopping, health care, employment needs and connections to other transit systems. It is particularly useful as an option where fixed route transit cannot operate in an efficient or productive manner. Microtransit rarely moves more than three to six passengers per vehicle revenue hour, but it may offer greater flexibility in well-defined corridors or zones of operation that cannot sustain a productive fixed route like in small cities, commercial subdivisions, or strings of office parks.

It is important to match the correct vehicle for the need and the environment.  Using a vehicle that is too small can make for uncomfortable service. Using a vehicle that is too large may be difficult to maneuver.  Rural transit programs typically operate fleets that may include the following types of vehicles:

• Accessible vans
• Modified mini-vans
• Light and medium duty transit vehicles (these can be different sizes)

Larger buses and specialty vehicles may also be included in some fleets, depending upon the services provided by the agency.

There are several factors to consider when choosing vehicles for a fleet. The Ohio DOT’s Vehicle Catalog & Selection Guide for local transit programs is an excellent reference for selecting smaller vehicles and details many of the questions and issues facing rural transit managers when they procure vehicles. The guide includes the following considerations:

• Capacity needs/safety
• Client needs/comfort
• Purchase price
• Type of service/environment
• Operating and preventive maintenance cost
• Future needs
• Regulatory requirements
• ADA requirements
• Ability to train or hire drivers with a Commercial Driver’s License (CDL)

While the Ohio Guide is geared to transit providers within the state, sections on legislation, regulations, and accessibility are useful and applicable across the country.

There are a wide variety of transit vehicles available and each is best suited for specific types of service.  Considerations should include current needs and near term future (five years) needs. 

• Sedans and minivans –. These are typically used in demand response service. While every vehicle does not have to be accessible, a level of service equivalent to that available to individuals without disabilities must be made available to people needing an accessible demand response vehicle. (49 CFR 37.77) 
• Accessible lift or ramp equipped vans – Ramp equipped vehicles allow for faster boarding and benefit many riders.  These vehicles are well suited to microtransit
• Light transit vehicles (often called body on chassis or cutaway) can be different sizes.  Can be used in paratransit, regional service or light fixed route.
• Medium and heavy duty transit coaches for heavily used routes and, in particular, for rural areas and long distance routes – they can last twice as long as light duty vehicles.  Some rural systems use heavy duty coaches for commuter service.  Medium duty coaches are often used when serving small cities with fixed route.  These vehicles offer a more comfortable ride than light duty vehicles.

When selecting vehicles, another important consideration is the long term availability of drivers with commercial driver’s licenses (CDL).  Finding CDL drivers or those able to complete the training and testing (often at a long distance from home) can be challenging in rural areas.  When looking at smaller vehicles, the difference between a vehicle requiring a CDL and one that doesn’t (over 14 passengers) is very small.  When capacity is not an issue, opting to purchase the non CDL vehicle makes sense and should be part of the consideration.

Interest in alternative fueled vehicles has grown among rural transit agencies in recent years. National RTAP’s Alternative Fuels Topic Guide provides links to numerous resources on this topic. National RTAP’s Best Practices Spotlight Article on Electric Vehicle Maintenance Best Practices provides recommended practices and case studies from transit agencies that have successfully implemented these vehicles into their fleets.

While electric vehicles (EVs) provide cleaner transportation, there are hurdles related to charging and maintenance infrastructure.  There also need to be maintenance staff capable of maintaining EVs.  Where hybrid and/or EV support is available, transit operators can consider that option.  Some rural systems are looking to team with their local governments to build the infrastructure and have the staff to operate EVs. 



The U. S. DOT’s Rural EV Toolkit: Charging Forward: A Toolkit for Planning and Funding Rural Electric Mobility contains information and resources on planning and funding rural EV infrastructure. This website also contains a section on Electric Mobility Basics that includes descriptions of the three types of electric vehicles currently available: Battery electric vehicles (BEVs), Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs).

Different types of services have different requirements for ADA accessibility. 

• For fixed route and flex route services all vehicles must be is readily accessible to and usable by individuals with disabilities, including individuals who use wheelchairs - ramp or lift equipped.  (49 CFR 37.71, 49 CFR 37.73, and 49 CFR 37.75) 
• Demand response service must be accessible as a whole, while every vehicle does not have to be accessible, people needing an accessible demand response vehicle should have the same access to the service as other riders.  (49 CFR 37.77) 
• Modification of Fixed-Route Service -  According to the FTA’s FY2023 Comprehensive Review Contractors Manual – ADA General, there are no ADA concerns with a proposal to move from a fixed-route to a demand-responsive service. As stated above, all vehicles used in demand-responsive service must be accessible to and usable by persons with disabilities, including wheelchair users, unless equivalent service can be demonstrated (49 CFR 37.77(c)). Once the move to demand-responsive service is complete, the obligation to provide ADA complementary paratransit service is no longer applicable. For more information on ADA requirements for demand- responsive service, see Chapter 7 of FTA Circular 4710.1.

Many transit vehicles employ low floors and ramps rather than wheelchair lifts.  Ramps have many advantages: 



• Lower maintenance and expenses. 
• Ramps are far less prone to breakdowns
• Can be manually deployed easily if necessary
• They are easier to deploy and take far less time to board and alight. 

Low floor can work in many parts of the rural service area, but there are some terrain issues which may make low floor problematic.  If one is considering a low floor vehicle, have the vendor bring a vehicle to your service area and test it to determine clearance issues.

Alternative fueled buses – hybrids and electrics are often available through a reduced local match, with the Federal Government accounting for 90 percent or more of the purchase prices. While most traditional fuel types will be subject to a higher match rate of 20 percent or more. 

The following factors should be considered when choosing vehicles:



• Operating and preventive maintenance cost
• Maintenance availability
• Future needs
• Regulatory requirements
• Ability to train or hire drivers with a Commercial Driver’s License (CDL)

The area of communications and technology in public transportation is continually evolving. There are more proven products for a variety of services than ever before.  Unfortunately, there are still some rural areas especially where broadband does not exist or communication may be spotty.  The most basic communication and technology need in public transportation is making sure customers have a way to get in touch with the transit agency and staff have a way to reach drivers while they are on the road (and vice versa).

Typical devices used to communicate with drivers while they are in-service include the following:

• Two-way radios
• Cellular phones
• Mobile data computers/terminals (MDC or MDT)
• Tablets 

For basic communication, in some places a radio network works well and in other areas cell phones have better coverage.  That has to be tested and selected locally. 



Automatic vehicle location (AVL) technology is also becoming commonly used, particularly in association with MDCs and tablets. This technology generally allows the public as well as the agency to see where each of the vehicles are throughout a service area in real-time.

It should be noted that the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) restricts the use of all hand-held mobile devices by drivers of commercial motor vehicles. Drivers of commercial motor vehicles are restricted from holding a mobile device to make a call or dialing by pressing more than a single button. Commercial motor vehicle drivers are permitted to use a hands-free phone located in close proximity.

There are a number good rural transit software options and vendors.  As of this writing, there are traditional day-in-advance, demand response packages and a variety of microtransit packages that allow for real-time service.  Many vendors offer both options.  Change in this area is happening very rapidly; software features can include, but are not limited to:

• App-based – Customers want to be able to access the service using an app on their smart phone.  This is a standard feature of microtransit, and often deployed by fixed route operators for next bus arrival information and alerts.
• Cloud-based – Technology is hosted by the vendor, making it easier for small transit systems to implement, and allowing for more frequent updates and bug fixes.
• Customized performance reports – It is important to work closely with the software vendor to be sure that desired data is collected and that performance reports meet the needs of the agency.

These options can result in reduced demands on the dispatcher and improve service quality.

The following factors should be considered when choosing communications and technology devices and tools:

• What level of sophistication is right for the agency?
• Does the agency have in-house technical expertise to keep MDCs and tablets operating effectively?
• What is the geographic range for various technologies in the service area? Are there dead areas for either two-way radios or cellular phones?
• Is there a need to extract data from the communication device (i.e., MDCs and tablets can be used for multiple data collection purposes)?
• Does the agency use paper or electronic driver manifests (i.e., daily assignments for each driver, such as passenger pick-up and drop-off details for demand response drivers, and route assignments for fixed-route drivers)?

The National Center for Mobility Management (NCMM) provides links to additional information about transit technology, as does the National Center for Applied Transit Technology (N-CATT).

Note that any FTA-funded intelligent transportation systems (ITS) technology must be consistent with and conform to the National ITS Architecture, as well as to U.S. DOT-adopted ITS Standards. ITS projects and programs are also required to be a part of a locally approved Regional ITS Architecture.  More information about this requirement is available on the FTA website.